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Misunderstood Minds: Basics of Writing

Basics of Writing

From the early formation of letters to crafting an essay, writing involves perhaps more subskills than any other academic task. To write well requires combining multiple physical and mental processes in one concerted effort to convey information and ideas. We must, for instance, be able to move a pen, or depress a key, precisely and fluidly to render letters, remember rules of grammar and syntax, place our thoughts in an order that makes sense, and think ahead to what we want to write next. 

Try it yourself. Experience a graphomotor difficulty.


This combination of tasks makes writing the highest form and most complex use of language. And as children progress through school, they are asked to do more with this skill than with any other except reading. Writing requirements increase across the curriculum -- from homework assignments and classwork to journals, note taking, quizzes, tests, and papers. Even standardized tests are moving toward fewer multiple-choice questions and more answers in the form of short paragraphs and essays. 

Try it yourself. Experience an essay assignment.

Most of us write with relative ease when we jot notes to friends and loved ones. The more complex or important a writing task is, however, the more likely it is that the ease and fluidity we experience with simpler writing tasks will disappear. Writing an important letter or a company report, we may question our word choice and tone, and anxiously check and recheck to make sure what we've written makes sense. 

It is probably no accident that many adults choose jobs that limit the amount of writing they have to do. Children, on the other hand, have no such luxury. They write nearly every day they are in school, from first grade on. And the accuracy, speed, and sophistication with which they write deeply impacts what they ultimately achieve scholastically. Because writing is so integral to a child's success or failure in school, identifying writing problems early is essential. 

The Developing Writer

Learning to write, like learning to read or to play a musical instrument, is generally a sequential process. Children progress as writers from one phase to the next, with one set of skills building on the skills acquired earlier. Writing, however, combines many skills, and relies on development in many areas not specific to writing. A child's fine motor control and vocabulary, for example, must improve in order for her writing to progress normally. Teachers follow the development of their students relative to established developmental milestones for each age and grade. 

Stages of Writing

In his book Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders, Dr. Mel Levine identifies six stages of writing development. Below is a list of those stages and some skills that characterize them.

Imitation (preschool to first grade)

In this phase children:

• pretend to write
• become aware that letters can be arranged to form words
• begin to organize letters and shapes in a line
• begin to print letters and numbers
• have relatively crude motor skills

Graphic Presentation (first and second grades)

In this phase children:

• become adept at printing letters
• are preoccupied with the visual appearance of their writing
• become self-conscious if their penmanship is less attractive than their classmates'
• become better at sequential ordering of letters and numbers
• use invented spellings of words liberally

Try it yourself. Experience a graphomotor difficulty.

Progressive Incorporation (late second to fourth grade)

In this phase children:

• gradually incorporate standards of capitalization, punctuation, syntax, and grammar
• seldom plan what they are going to write before they write it
• use writing to relate experiences rather than to solve problems or develop ideas
• begin writing in cursive
• begin revising their work

Automatization (fourth to seventh grade)

In this phase children:

• must apply rules of grammar, spelling, and punctuation automatically
• begin to regularly review their own work
• begin to write at a level equivalent to their own speech
• learn to write in stages by incorporating outlines and multiple drafts
• begin to assess the effectiveness of their own writing

Elaboration (seventh to ninth grade)

In this phase children:

• become increasingly adept at using writing to express a viewpoint
• begin to use writing for thinking, problem solving, and remembering
• learn to synthesize ideas from a variety of sources
• begin to write at a level that exceeds their own speech
• use transitions like "finally" and "for example" extensively

Try it yourself. Experience an essay assignment.

Personalization-Diversification (ninth grade and beyond)

In this phase children:

• learn to use writing styles appropriate to their subjects
• become more creative with their writing
• learn to use sentences of varying length and complexity
• write with increasingly sophisticated vocabulary
• develop individual writing styles

Neurodevelopmental Functions

Writing skills develop hand in hand with neurodevelopmental functions. Five key functions -- graphomotor, attention, language, memory, and higher-order cognition -- are outlined below.

Graphomotor

Graphomotor function refers to the ability to use muscles in the fingers and hands to form letters easily and legibly and to maintain a comfortable grip on a writing instrument. This function plays an important role in maneuvering a pen or pencil and allowing the fingers to keep pace with the flow of ideas.

Attention

Attention plays an important role in all stages of writing. This task often demands considerable mental energy and focus over long periods of time. Writers must not only preview what they want to convey as they put their ideas on paper, but also continually self-monitor to stay on track.

Language

Language is an essential ingredient of writing. The ability to recognize letter sounds, comprehend words and their meanings, understand word order and grammar to construct sentences, and describe or explain ideas all contribute to a child's ability to write clearly.

Memory

Memory ability has a significant impact on writing. The rate at which children generate ideas must coincide with their retrieval of necessary vocabulary, spelling, and prior knowledge. When organizing essays, writers must be able to think about a topic, draw upon facts and concepts, and sequence ideas and facts in the right order.

Higher-Order Cognition

In the upper grades, writing relies on higher-order cognitive functions. Assignments often require students to generate original and creative ideas while integrating spelling, grammar, and punctuation rules. By early adolescence, many written assignments demand critical thinking skills and conceptual ability such as evaluating opposing arguments and drawing conclusions. 

**Information taken from:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds/writingbasics.html

Overview of the Writing Process

Autism and the Writing Process

Overview:	Autism is a life-long developmental disability that prevents people from  understanding what they see, hear, and otherwise sense. This results in  severe problems with social relationships, communication, and  behaviour.  Most signs or characteristics of autism are evident in the areas of speech or    communication (verbal and non-verbal). Many of the signs or symptoms of autism begin presenting themselves between 2 and 6 years of age.
Writing Supports:	- teachers or speech language pathologists may also work on language-based aspects of writing to help learners build comprehension and spoken expression (develop programs to improve speech goals).  - as students write in any word processor, email program, or on the Internet, Co:Writer uses context clues and common spelling information to "predict" the words students try to write even when they spell them phonetically or inventively (such as writing the word 'elephant' as 'lfont'). These predictions are offered in a list that Co:Writer reads out loud. When students hear the right word, they choose the word from a list and that word is sent to the writing application.              - a portable keyboard such as AlphaSmart or Quick Pad provides students an alternate method for articulation in writing assignments. Students will generate more complete ideas to ultimately create a first draft to final copy.  - graphic organizers provide a visual tool for students to formulate ideas, plan research and brainstorm in a short organized format. - Kidspiration encourages children to express themselves and express their thoughts with this program that allows them to grasp new concepts and begin to categorize, brainstorm and organize their thoughts in a natural way. Kidspiration has two viewing screens: Picture View and Writing View. Picture View makes it easy for pupils to see their ideas and information visually, taking advantage of the principles of visual learning, allowing pupils to represent their ideas using symbols. Simple maps, webs and other visual learning diagrams are contained within a library of over 1,200 images. Audio also plays a role within this program, pupils can hear their work read aloud or record their own words. All menus, buttons and other text are audio supported as well, helping children to read and navigate with confidence. Writing View integrates with Picture View to help children connect their ideas with words, as emerging readers learn about planning and organizing for writing.
Apps:	Pictello - is an easy-to-use way to create "storybooks" or talking photo albums from the images in your device's photo library. You choose a picture for each page, type in text, and can either have that text read by a computerized narrator, or record yourself reading it. It feels like it should be a complicated process, but it incredibly easy to learn and use, even for kids. Know that your photo books can be shared, either as emailed iTunes files, or via Pictello's universal server. You need to provide an email to join Pictello, but other users can only download your photo books if you give them a code. Kids can write stories based around their personal photos and hear those stories read aloud by a narrator. Or they can record themselves reading the text. Misspelled words will be marked as you write, and suggestions made for correcting them. In addition to the obvious reading and writing benefits, the app give kids a chance to learn about story structure. Price: $14.99 Language Builder is designed to help children accomplish the following educational goals: 1) Improve sentence ideation  2) Improve sentence formation and 3) Improve receptive and expressive language. Extensive use of audio clips promotes improved auditory processing for special needs children with autism spectrum disorders or sensory processing disorders. Auditory playback of child's voice offers reinforcement for language development. Price: $3.99
For More Information:	http://www.autismcoach.com/Software%20Overview.htm  (Special Software for Special Kids) http://www.disaboom.com/assistive-technology-general/assistive-technology-for-autism (Assistive Technology for Autism: Available at All Costs and for All Levels) http://www.autismcoach.com/Assistsive%20Technology%20Overview.htm (Computer Assistive Technology for Autism Overview)

Videos on Autism and Relevant Apps

Cerebral Palsy & The Writing Process

Overview	Physical Disabilities: Cerebral Palsy Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disorder that affects muscle tone, movement, and motor skills (the ability to move in a coordinated and purposeful way). Cerebral palsy can also lead to other health issues, including vision, hearing, and speech problems, and learning disabilities. CP is usually caused by brain damage that occurs before or during a child's birth, or during the first 3 to 5 years of a child's life. There is no cure for CP, but treatment, therapy, special equipment, and, in some cases, surgery can help a child who is living with the condition.
Writing Supports	∙Physical therapy - activities and education to improve flexibility, strength, mobility, and function. ∙Occupational therapy -maximum use of their communication skills in expressing their ideas and understanding those expressed by others as well as understanding written language ∙Slant boards- support to wrist for improved manipulation of pencil for grapho-motor skills and also imporves visual focus and tracking. ∙Kidspirations- allows students to use visual learning to express their thoughts and ideas through graphic organizers, webs, maps and organizers to convey and clarify their thoughts, apply new knowledge. ∙Natural Reader: Converts written text into spoken language (*See link in “More information”section- Naturalreaders.com)- this software allows the student to read their written output to any audience.  This is a free peice of software that has proven to be very helpful. ∙Wireless keyboard when using iPad- the ipad presents a difficult angle for students with CP to type. ∙iPad Keyguard-  All iPad keyguards are made from 1/8″ (0.3cm) thick clear acrylic and come with optional 1/16″ (0.15cm) bumpers which can raise the keyguard above the screen to prevent accidental touches. -Tablet stand for iPad- enables a more ergonomic approach to using the iPad for students with flexibility issues -Dragon Naturally Speaking- This program would be helpful for students that are not able to physically hold a pencil, but are able convey their ideas through vocals clearly.  The student will need to train their voice, which will take about an hour. A student that is using this program should be aware, that many errors could be made, depending on their articulation.  Students may use DNS to create and edit written documents or emails, launch applications, open files, control their mouse and much more. *Please view the video in our "Misc. Links" section to receive a sample of how the program works.*
Apps	∙A promising app that is coming soon (Not yet available): Overview:In looking for a project to tackle as part of a software-engineering class, a team of computer science and engineering students posed the question: What can we do to help people whose impaired motor movements make it difficult to manipulate touch-sensitive screens or press the small buttons on mobile keyboards? A University of Michigan team of engineering students and rehabilitation engineers is building an app to help people whose impaired motor movements make it hard to manipulate touch-sensitive screens or press the small buttons on iPads and other mobile devices. The student team expects to release the app on the Apple App Store within the next few weeks.  *See video posted in the “Video Links” section Price: No price available at this time Why it is good: Allows students who have difficulty pressing small iPad buttons more flexibility when using the devices ∙Granimator™ Overview:To get started the user simply selects from the choice of shapes, styles and backgrounds. They can then draw the selected assets onto the stage, and erase, move, scale and rotate them to create compositions Price: Free Why it is good: Promotes, reinforces and motivates the use of fine motor skills which would build muscles and enable students to produce better quality written output messages. -Predictable Overview:Predictable is a cost effective and unique communication aid solution for people with disabilities which result in speech impairment. Predictable may be a valuable communication aid for people with conditions such as cerebral palsy, motor neuron disease, acquired brain injury and other dysarthrias and motor speech disorders. Users can type a message more efficiently by using a sophisticated word prediction engine and speak the message using a range of voices.Price: $159.99 Why it's good:  Multiple access methods to cater for people with limited physical ability; 1) Direct Touch via typing for those who can access the iPad, iPod Touch or iPhone function as normal. 2) Switch Access users can continue to use existing switches. *Note you would need a Switch interface for this mode. 3) Touch Anywhere method turns the iPad, iPod Touch or iPhone screen into a switch while Predictable is in auto scan mode, thus allowing the user to tap anywhere on screen to select the scanned portion. This may be useful with some isolated movement or with reduced fine motor control.
For More Information	∙Handwriting Problem Solutions: http://www.handwriting-solutions.com/about.asp ∙Natural Reader: http://www.naturalreaders.com/index.htm ∙National Institute of Cerebral Palsy and Stroke: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/cerebral_palsy/cerebral_palsy.htm ∙Cerebral Palsy & Technology - http://www.computers-technology-cerebralpalsy.com/ -Sensory Processing Resource Center  http://www.sensory-processing-disorder.com/